Cold War

 Cold War

Cold War was a very unique kind of chain of events going on roughly from the end of Second World War to 1991. It was a sort of rivalry between the two Super Powers viz. United States of America (USA) and Soviet Union. It was not just a rivalry between these two giants but also between the group of countries which followed and accepted the leadership of USA and Soviet Union. Most of the Western European countries like United Kingdom, France, West Germany, etc. were the allies of USA. In case of most of the Eastern European countries, they were the followers of Soviet Union.

It can be seen that rivalry between United States of America and Soviet Union began in post Second World War era. During the Second World War America and Soviet Union were fighting hand-in-hand against Germany. But, after the defeat of Germany and Japan in Second World War the pre Second World War differences between the USA and USSR came out  openly. The friendship of Second World War years gave way to rivalry between USA and Soviet Union and their respective allies. This rivalry itself is called as the Cold War.

Cold War resulted into many situations wherein entire world was put under tremendous pressure. Some of such events of Cold War were Korean War, Cuban Missile Crisis, Vietnam War, etc. It also led to the formation and signing of various Security Pacts such as North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO), South East Asia Treaty Organisation (SEATO), Central Treaty Organisation (CENTO), ANZUS (Australia, New Zealand, United States), Pact, Warsaw Pact, etc. Out of these Security Pacts Warsaw Pact was signed between the Soviet Union and her communist allies and remaining were signed between United States and her friends.

One of the important features of Cold War was that American allies and Soviet Union and her friends were involved in spying each other. The American Spy Agency Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), British Spy Agency Military Intelligence 6 (MI6), Soviet Spy Agency KGB and even Israeli Spy Agency Mossad were at the foremost in the spying incidents.

According to experts refusal of Soviet Union to withdraw her forces from Eastern Germany and establish Communist Governments in East Germany and Eastern European countries was one of the most important reasons for the beginning of Cold War rivalry.

Due to Cold War Germany suffered a lot. The most important direct effect of Cold War was the division of Germany into East Germany and West Germany. East Germany with its capital Berlin became the follower of Soviet Union. In East Germany the Russians played an important role in the establishment of Communist form of government. West Germany remained friendly with Western allies led by USA. West Germany had democratic form of government and its capital was Bonn. Germany had to wait till 1990 for its re-unification.

Soviet Union had tried to install its missiles in Cuba. This move of USSR resulted into tremendous tensions between Soviet Union and USA. Cuba is a Caribbean country located very near to USA. When Fidel Castro, Cuba’s then ruler started going close to Soviet Union and allowed Russians to install missiles in Cuba, naturally America got angered. It was a great set back to the greater scheme of Americans to contain the spread of Communism. America was trying to stop the Communism in different parts of the world that is why it was humiliating to her when her close neighbour Cuba had gone in the group of Soviets. America gave daring response to this so called Cuban Missile Crisis. John F. Kennedy, the then President of USA ordered US Navy to blockade the Soviet Ships carrying missiles to Cuba. During Cuban Missile Crisis entire world had come to the brink of Nuclear War between these two Super Powers. But, good sense prevailed on both the sides and the tension was defused and war was avoided. Russians agreed to withdraw missiles from Cuba and America also accepted to withdraw its Jupiter Missiles from Turkey.

Due to Cold War Berlin city was also divided into East Berlin and West Berlin. West Berliners were friendly towards America and her allies and East Berlin was under the influence of Soviet Union.

When Soviet Union was under the control of Stalin, Khrushchev and Brezhnev the Cold War was at its highest peak. But with the arrival of Mikhail Gorbachev at the helm of the affairs in Soviet Union situation started changing. Gorbachev was a lawyer by training and moderate leader. He really wanted to bring positive political and economic changes in Soviet Union and peaceful relations with Western Powers. For achieving his goals he introduced the policies of Glasnost and Perestroika. Under these policies the political and economic freedom was given to Russian people which ultimately resulted into the disintegration of Soviet Union in 1991. It is a classic example from history wherein one sees that the policies with good intentions instead of yielding positive results ruined the things and there was a downfall of Gorbachev as well as mighty Soviet Union.

In 1991 the Communist regime established by Lenin after October 1917 Russian Revolution became a history. Various provinces like Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Belarus, Ukraine, Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan declared their independence from Soviet Union and became independent and sovereign countries.

After the disintegration of Soviet Union USA remained the only Super Power in the world. With the arrival of twenty first century many changes are taking place in international scenario. At present countries like India and China have become important players in the global political and economic developments. China is making rapid economic progress but at the same time creating nuisance to its neighbouring countries. India is the largest democracy in the world and its goal is to achieve an inclusive and sustainable development by spreading the message of peace to the world. It is definite that India will play a major role at the global level in the years to come.

In 20^th century the World as a whole had experienced First World War, Second World War and Cold War. There were other wars also fought in different parts of the world during previous century and twenty four years of 21^st century that is ongoing century. Let us pray that there shouldn’t be a Third World War or yet another Cold War in the years to come. There should be only peace, cooperation, universal brotherhood, harmony and spread of love, humanity and smile in the world.

European Union

 

European Union

European Union is an important world level organisation mainly consisting the European countries. It aims at working together in respect with social, security and mainly economic policies related to the member nations.

The origins of the formation of European Union can be traced back to the days of Second World War. In 1944 the representatives of three European countries viz. Belgium, Netherlands and Luxembourg signed a treaty called as London Customs Convention. This treaty resulted into the formation of Benelux Customs Union. These  countries had lost ground to Germany during World War II, hence the exiled representatives of these countries took the lead in the formation of Benelux Customs Convention which subsequently came to be called as Benelux Economic Union.

According to experts this  Benelux Economic Union was sort of a precursor and inspiration for the formation of European Union after a period of almost four decades.

In 1952 European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) was formed. The countries which took lead in the formation of European Coal and Steel Community were West Germany, Luxembourg, Netherlands, France, Italy and Belgium. The Treaty of Paris signed by these countries in the year 1951 culminated into the formation of European Coal and Steel Community. United Kingdom did not join ECSC, perhaps to maintain her economic freedom.

Another important milestone in the journey of establishment of future European Union was the signing of Treaty of Rome on 25 March 1957. This Treaty resulted into the establishment of European Economic Community (EEC). In fact, two treaties were signed in this year in Rome one out of it gave birth to European Economic Community (EEC) and the other one to European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom). EEC made the important provisions such as free mobility of trade, capital, labour, goods, etc. across the member countries. It also envisaged the establishment of common market, common agricultural policy and trade with other countries. It also resulted into one of the fantastic decisions of raising the European Social Fund in order to increase jobs.

Later on European Economic Community became the European Community. The European Community could be considered as the immediate predecessor of European Union. The European Community came to be called as the European Union (EU) as per the Treaty of Maastricht. Maastricht is a city located in Netherlands. The Maastricht Treaty was signed in the year 1992.

Today European Union has its own currency called as Euro. There are no restrictions on travel from one country to other. The official Identity Card or Passport is enough for travelling from one country to other. Even one can study and work in member countries of European Union with the help of Identity Card or Passport. There is no need of visa or work permits.

At present most of the countries of Europe are the members of European Union. In 2017 the government of United Kingdom held a referendum and decided to leave European Union. The exit of United Kingdom of Britain and Northern Ireland is called as Brexit. But, one can say that European Union is one of the famous successful stories of post Second World times. It member nations of European Union are definitely reaping and enjoying the economic benefits and fruits of European Union.

Russian Revolution of February 1917

Russian Revolution of February 1917

Russia witnessed a Revolution in the month of February 1917. This Revolution was directed against the exploitative rule of Nicholas II, the then Tsar of Russia. He belonged to Romanov dynasty. In Russian King or Monarch is called as Tsar. The peasants i.e. farmers, workers and soldiers played crucial role in February 1917 Revolution in Russia.

Russia was the biggest country territory wise. It was and is called as Eurasian country because it is spread over both in Europe and Asia. Historically the Russian Tsars were interested in expanding the Russian Empire. By the closing years of 19^th century 19^th century Russia was involved in its business of expansion but seldom payed attention towards the betterment of the people.

By the times of Nicholas II Russian Empire had become a big dinosaur with highly inefficient, ineffective and corrupt political and administrative system. Hence, Russia was lagging behind other European countries, especially Western and Northern Europe as far as industrial and economic development was concerned.

Instead of paying attention to improve the economic, political, administrative and social system Russia unnecessarily got involved into the European power politics. It also got embroiled in First World War and did not give up and ambition to expand the Empire.

There was suppression human rights and denial of civil liberties and intellectual freedom in Russia. If somebody dared to criticise Tsar and his rule such persons were dealt with heavy hand. Russia was the home for many religious minorities who were oppressed most of the times.

As said above the Russian economy was suffering from many problems. The agricultural activities were carrying out in traditional way which were in no way to compare with modernised agricultural systems like United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. The industrial sector of Russia also had its own woes. The conditions of peasants and workers was precarious. The peasants were exploited by the big landlords.

Thus, the condition of peasants of workers was in bad shape. Apart from these two classes there was a section of other people which consisted of educated and qualified persons like writers, lawyers, teachers, doctors, etc. These people provided intellectual leadership to the society and created awareness about the lethargic Tsarist regime of Russia.

There was growth of political ideas and ideologies in Russia. Different types of groups like Mensheviks, Bolsheviks, Cadets and members of Socialist Revolutionary Party believed in different kind of ideologies. But they agreed on a point that there was an urgent need to overthrow the rule of Tsar so that better economy, polity and society could be built in Russia.

Some of the Wars and Russia’s defeat and poor performance was one of the reasons responsible for the Russian Revolution of February 1917. Here we can take the example of Russ-Japanese War of 1904-05 and First World War. In Russo-Japanese War of 1994-05 Japan defeated Russia. It was stunning insult to Russia because she was a great European Power and Japan was considered as Asian dwarf or pigmy. Most of the Russians felt that Russia unnecessarily got involved in the First World War. They perceived it as quintessential European War fought for imperialistic ambitions and Russia was not no match to Super Powerful countries like England and Germany. But, Tsar chose to participate in this war and also went personally on the war front against the advice of his well-wishers. Russian army suffered heavy casualties and losses. Hence, Russia’s participation in First World War did not go well with Russian people.

An episode of Rasputin also played its own role in maligning the image of Russian royal family. Rasputin was a mystic from Eastern part of Russia. His involvement in the affairs of Russian Tsar’s family did not go well with the people of Russia. There were rumours that Rasputin was having an affair with Tsarina Alexandria. Rasputin was the man of many vices. He was a heavy drinker and wimaniser. It was believed that he was the one who interfered in royal affairs and I’ll advised Tsar and Tsarina. Ultimately Rasputin was assassinated by the members royal families only. It is said that even the mother of Tsar Nicholas II had left the royal palace in Moscow due to the involvement of Rasputin with Russian royal family.

Due to all the above mentioned factors and anarchic type of situation the Revolution occurred in Russia in the month of February 1917. There was a strike of workers Petrograd on 18 February 1917. There was an acute shortage of food or bread in Russia, hence, women started protesting. These women were supported by workers. The troops refused to take action against striking workers and women. It was an indication that Tsar’s regime had lost its control over Russia. Tsar Nicholas II was made to abdicate the throne and an Interim Government was formed in Russia. Later on an interim government was headed by Alexander Kerensky as the Prime Minister.

Very soon in the months of October 1917 there was yet another Revolution in Russia which is known as the October or Bolshevik Revolution of 1917. This Revolution was carried out under the guidance of Vladimir Lenin who was influenced by the Marxist ideology of Karl Marx. Hence, after October 1917 Revolution efforts were made to implement Communism in Russia.

 

Reformation

 

 

Reformation

Reformation was the movement related to Christianity. The aim of Reformation was to bring positive reforms in Christianity. This movement started during sixteenth century. Martin Luther is credited with starting the Reformation. He was a German priest and theologian. He was born on 10 November 1483 in Eiselben located in modern day Germany. History father’s name was Hans Luther who was a copper miner by profession. Martin Luther studied from the University of Erfurt. He was interested in theology and became a monk. Later on he became a professor of theology in the University of Wittenberg.

At that point of time the Pope used to act the head of all Christendom. The Pope used to function from Rome. Rome is a capital of present day Italy. Being  a professor of theology and monk Martin Luther was associated with the study of Christianity. He had even visited Rome in the year 1510. Martin Luther was not so happy by the way of life led by the Roman Catholic clergies in Rome. Martin Luther was a very studious person and thorough scholar. He went on to complete Doctorate in the subject of theology.

The foremost reason responsible for the protest of Martin Luther against  unethical functioning of the Papacy or authority of Pope was the controversy of indulgences or indulgence scandal. It happened so that one Mr. Albert of Brandenburg was in debt from toe to the head. He was the Archbishop of Mainz. He convinced Leo X, the then Pope to issue indulgences in the territory which came under religious control of Albert of Brandenburg. These two has struck the deal according to which around fifty percent of the money raised by selling these indulgences would go to Pope Leo X. The remaining amount was supposed to be pocketed by Albert. Pope Leo X agreed to this arrangement because he needed money at that point of time in order to take forward the construction of St. Peter’s Basilica. Tetzel, an agent of Albert of Brandenburg started selling these indulgences duly authorised by Pope and told the people that they would go to heaven if they bought these indulgences. According to him no matter what people did they would go to heaven after buying the indulgences.

Martin Luther criticised the sale of indulgences. He declared it as an unethical and immoral act on the part of Roman Catholic Church and Pope. He displayed his famous Ninety Five Theses condemning the acts of Albert of Brandenburg and Tetzel and in a way the Pope. This act of Martin Luther is considered as the beginning of Reformation by the historians.

What began as a protest resulted into a fully blown Reformation Movement. Martin Luther slowly and steadily started getting supporters and the Reformation Movement grew stronger day by day.

The protest of Martin Luther or Reformation Movement became strong in Germany. It also got support in Great Britain or today’s United Kingdom and Scandinavia.

Due to this Protestant Movement (the Movement for protesting against the Roman Catholic Church and Pope) the Christianity got split. The supporters of Martin Luther came to be known as the Protestants and original Christianity came to be called as Roman Catholic sect.

The Protestant Movement has supporters in France as well. The leader of Protestant Movement in France was John Calvin. His supporters were called as Calvinists who followed Calvinism. In Switzerland the Church authority was questioned by Ulrich Zwingli.

Due to the Protestant Movement or Reformation there were lots of repercussions. First of all there was a division in Christianity as mentioned earlier. The most of the countries located in northern Europe embraced Protestant sect and southern European countries remained mostly Catholic. The new sect of Protestants later on travelled across Atlantic Ocean into North America. The Roman Catholic sect also tried to cover the ground lost to Protestant sect by spreading itself mainly in the overseas territories of Spain and Portugal. These two countries had decided to remain Catholic.

These were bloody fights between the Protestants and Catholics which took the lives of many individuals.

It was seen that the countries which accepted Protestant sect witnessed the strengthening of the powers of their monarchs.

The Reformation Movement had its effects on the development of Art as well. The Protestants believed in simple art in contrast to the grandeur of Roman Catholic Church.

In this way Reformation is one of the most important movements in Europe which ushered in modernisation in religious domain. It has its effects on social, religious, economic and political life of the Europeans.

 

Queen Victoria

Victorian Age 

Alexandrina Victoria became famous as queen of Great Britain and Ireland, she was also Known as the Empress of India. she was born on 24th May 1819 in Kensington palace – London. She was the queen of United Kingdom, Great Britain & Ireland between 1837 to 1901. And the Empress of India from 1876 to 1901. Her father was Edward The Duke of Kent.

She had good relations with Lord Melbourne, the prime minister. Melbourne had great influence on her. She said that Lord Melbourne played and important role in boosting self- confidence and enthusiasm in Ǫueen Victoria.

Victoria got married on Feb 8. 1840 she ruled as a queen for 64 long years. During her reign, the British empire was at its largest and highest peak when she was the queen the British empire included India, Australia Canada, New Zealand and south Africa

It is said that during her reign the British the empire covered 1/5th of the worlds territory and on an average one person in every four belonged with the British empire.

During the reign of Ǫueen Victoria development in different walks of life took place which included literature and science. the economic changes and changes in Eve Structure of classes and role of religion in society were witnessed. Technological advancements took progress that time. She wanted to keep aloof from controversial topics like religion.

As far as scientific discoveries and Invention were concerned during that time. X-rays, telegraphy and photography were in vented even the telephone and electric light bulbs. As far as literature was concerned novel became a very popular genre of literature. Political movements such as Socialism, Liberalism and organized feminism got promoted during Victorian age. Apart from novels, poetry also became important. It is said that she enjoyed the novels written by Charles Dickens.

As far as India was concerned, during the revolt of 1857 of India, Lord Canning was governor general of India and Victoria was the British queen. Lord Canning was successful in controlling the revolt by July 1858. In the same year Ǫueen Victoria’s proclamation was declared. And the rule of East India Company was brought to an end and India went under direct Control of British government. That is why She was called as Empress of India.

In 1853 Lord Dalhousie the then Governor General of India had introduced railways in India. The first train in India or for that matter in Asia ran between Bombay and Thane on 16th April 1858.In her memory, the railway station at Bombay was named as Victoria Terminus, which is today known as Chatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Terminus. Even the postal system and

electric telegram was introduced by Dalhousie when Victoria was Ǫueen of Great Britain and Ireland. Ǫueen Victoria and her reign, remains one of the spectacular ones and pop popular in British history.

The reign of Ǫueen Victoria definitely impacted British Empire and also entire world directly  or indirectly.

The famous Victoria and Albert Museum in London is named after Queen Victoria and her husband Albert. This museum was set up around 1852 but it was named as Victoria and Albert Museum in 1899 when Queen Victoria laid the cornerstone of the present day building of the Museum.The new building of Victoria and Albert Museum was opened in the year 1909. At present the Maharashtra government had brought the famous Tiger Claws of great Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj from Victoria and Albert Museum. It is said that these Tiger Claws were used by Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj for killing Afzal Khan, the noble from the Court of Adilshah of Bijapur.

Victoria was the Empress of British Empire during important international events like Revolt of 1857 in India, Crimean War (1853-56) with Russia, Construction of Suez Canal and the South African War (1899-1902) also called the Second Boer War. She could not witness the victory of British over Boers in this war as she died in 1901.

Indian National Congress and Maharashtra

 

 

Indian National Congress and Maharashtra

Indian National Congress was formed in the year 1885. Retired British Servant Allan Octavian  Hume played an important role in the establishment of Indian National Congress.

The first session of the Indian National Congress was held in the city of Bombay from 28 to 31 December 1885. It was held in Gkuldas Tejpal Sanskrit College.

As many as Seventy Two delegates from different parts of India attended the first session of Indian National Congress. As far as the Presidencies of Bombay, Madras and Bengal were concerned Thirty Eight, Twenty One and Four delegates attended the first session of Indian National Congress respectively from these Presidencies. The President of the first session was Womesh Chandra Bannerji.

Originally the first session of Indian National Congress was planned to be held in Pune. Poona Sarvajanik Sabha was to play the host of the first session but there was an outbreak of cholera in Pune at that point of time. Hence, the venue of the first session was shifted from Pune to Bombay. Since then during the years of freedom struggle the annual sessions of Indian National Congress were held at various places in different parts of India.

As far as the connection of Maharashtra with Indian National Congress was concerned it was established in Bombay city located in Bombay Presidency i.e. today’s Maharashtra. The prominent leaders like Dadabhai Naoroji, Sir Pherozshah Mehta, Badruddin Tyabji and N. G. Chandavarkar from Bombay city had served as the Presidents of Indian National Congress.

Some of the other well-known personalities from Bombay Presidency or Maharashtra who were associated with Indian National Congress in pre-independence era were Justice Mahadev Govind Ranade, Justice Kashinath Tryambak Telang, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, Lokmanya Tilak among others. Gopal Krishna Gokhale is considered as the Mentor of Mahatma Gandhi.

Bombay Presidency Association was established in Bombay city in 1885. The founders of Bombay Presidency Association viz. Sir Pherozshah Mehta, Kashinath Tryambak Telang and Badruddin Tyabji were closely associated with Indian National Congress. Badruddin Tyabji and Sir Pherozshah Mehta were Presidents of the Sessions of Indian National Congress held in 1887 and 1890 in Madras and Calcutta respectively. Kashinath Tryambak Telang was the Secretary of the Reception Committee for the first session of the Indian National Congress to be held in Bombay city in 1885.

We have already seen that Poona Sarvajanik Sabha another Provincial Association from Bombay Presidency or present day Maharashtra was to organise the first session of the Indian National Congress.

The above discussion shows that the Provincial Associations from Maharashtra and many leaders from Bombay Presidency were actively involved in the activities of Indian National Congress since its inception. Maharashtra also responded positively and enthusiastically when the call for freedom struggle was given and participated in the various movements launched against British such as Non-cooperation Movement, Civil Disobedience Movement, Quit India Movement, etc.

 

The Government of India Act 1909

 

 

The Government of India Act 1909

(Morley Minto Reforms)

The year 1909 was very important as far as the Constitutional or Legal development and history of modern India was concerned. In 1909  John Morley, the then Secretary of State for India and Lord Minto, the then Viceroy of India announced certain constitutional reforms for India. These reforms are known as Morley-Minto reforms of 1909 or the Indian Councils Act of 1909.

Some of the provisions of the Indian Councils Act of 1909 were as following:

Increase in the number of non-official or elected members in provincial and central legislative councils

In Governor General’s Council or Imperial Legislative Council the number of official members i.e. the ones appointed by the Governor General or Viceroy was more than that of unofficial members

The members of Imperial Legislative Council and Provincial Legislative Councils were categorised into- Ex-officio members, nominated official members, nominated non-official members and elected members.

In the category of elected members Indians mostly got the chance to enter the councils.

Indian members came to be appointed as the members of Executive Council of the Governor General. Indians also got an opportunity to be nominated as the members of the Secretary of State for India’s Council.

It made the provision of separate electorates for Muslims.

Provision of electing members from chambers of commerce, zamindars, universities, etc. was introduced.

The members could discuss and ask questions on different areas including budget.

The Government of India Act 1919 (Montague Chelmsford Reforms)

The Government of India Act 1919 is also known as the Montague Chelmsford Reforms. Lord Montague was the Secretary of State for India at that point of time and Lord Chelmsford was the then Governor General of India.

The highlights of the Government of India Act 1919 were as following:

The salary of Secretary of State for India came to be paid from British treasury. Earlier it was paid from the revenue generated in India

The powers of Secretary of State for India at province level were reduced

The number of Indians in Governor General’s was increased

The subjects were divided into Central and Provincial lists

The Indian members of Governor General’s Executive Council were given less important departments

At Centre the two houses of legislature were introduced viz. Council of State and Central Legislative Assembly

Government of India Act 1935

 Some of the important changes brought by the Government of India Act 1935 were as following:

All India Federation consisting provinces under the control of British and Indian princely states

Provinces were given more autonomy

The powers were divided between the Centre and the provinces by way of introducing federal list, provincial list and concurrent list

Dyarchy at Central level was introduced and that of Provincial level abolished

The Central legislature was divided into two houses i.e. upper house and lower house

India Council was abolished

The provision of Federal Court, Reserve Bank of India, Federal Service Commission, Provincial Service Commissions, Joint Public Service Commission and Federal Railway Authority was made

The Above mentioned three Acts i.e. Government of India Act 1909, Government of India Act 1919 and Government of India Act 1935 are considered as important steps in the constitutional or legal history of India.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Cripps Mission-1942

Entry of Japan into Second World War prompted Britain to look towards the demands of Indians seriously. The result was the Cripps Mission. Prime Minister Winston Churchill constituted the Cripps Mission headed by Sir Stafford Cripps who was the Leader of House of Commons at that point of time.

Sir Stafford Cripps submitted the Draft Proposals or Declaration to Governor General’s Executive Council and subsequently during a press conference they were made known to the people of India.

The highlights of Draft Declaration were as following:

After the Second World War Indian Union with Dominion Status will be created. It would have right to even participate in important organisations at international level

Constituent Assembly will be formed for making a Constitution which would have members from the territories controlled by British and Native or Princely States

In case a particular province didn’t want to join the Union of India would have its special Constitution

The defence related matters would be under the control of British

The Cripps Proposals were not accepted by the Indian leaders. Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru and Maulana Azad were part of the negotiations about the Cripps Proposals. Their most important demand was British government should give complete independence to India and not dominion status

Mahatma Gandhi also rejected the Cripps Proposals and he described it as ‘a post dated cheque’. According to some historians one more sentence was added to it by somebody else and it was claimed that actually Mahatma Gandhi called the Cripps Proposals or Cripps Mission as  ‘a post dated cheque on a failing banks’.

As far as Muslim League was concerned it was vehemently demanding a separate state for Muslims

The minorities wanted  more safety measures for them

Organisations like Hindu Mahasabha and other people with liberal thinking objected to issue of right to secede away from Commonwealth

In this way Cripps Proposals faced opposition and objections from all the important stakeholders. Ultimately the Cripps Proposals were rejected by Indians and Cripps Mission proved to be a failure. Sir Stafford Cripps had arrived in India in the month of March 1942 and returned to Britain in April 1942.

Cabinet Mission Plan 1946

By the end of Second World War Conservative Party of Winston Churchill lost power in Britain and Labour Party formed the government. Clement Atlee of Labour Party became the Prime Minister in May 1945.

Clement Atlee’s government decided to send three Ministers of India in order to negotiate with the Indians. These three Ministers were- Lord Pethick-Lawrence, Sir Stafford Cripps and A. V. Alexander. They were supposed to visit India and negotiate with the Indians. The visit of these three Ministers is described as the Cabinet Mission in history.

The Cabinet Mission arrived in India in March 1946.

Important highlights of the Cabinet Mission Plan were as following:

·         There would be Union government

·         The Union government will have Executive and Legislature

·         The provinces would have autonomy in respect with the subjects allotted to them and also they will have residuary powers

·         The provinces could form Groups with Executive and Legislatures and further every Group could decide the common provincial subjects

It Grouped the Indian provinces into A, B and C categories. The composition of each of these Groups was as following:

·         Group A- Bombay, Madras, Central Provinces, United Provinces, Bihar and Orissa

·         Group B- Punjab, the North West Frontier and Sindh

·         Group C- Assam and Bengal

It was further said that:

·         Delhi, Ajmer-Marwara and Coorg would be free to join Group A

·         Baluchistan would join Group B

One point to be noted here is that Group A and Delhi, Ajmer-Marwara and Coorg had majority of Hindus and Group B, Group C and Baluchistan had majority of Muslims, hence, somewhere there was an invisible communal line in the Groupings of the Provinces.

One of the important aspects of Cabinet Mission was to form the Constituent Assembly for framing the Constitution and also to decide the issue of how to form Interim Government.

The major demand of Muslim League was that the provinces should be allowed to make changes in the Constitution of Union immediately instead of after ten years.

As far as Indian National Congress was concerned it wanted that the independence of India should be given more priority than framing a Constitution. It also wanted more powers to be vested in Union government, especially in the eventuality of worst kind of law and order problem.

Mountbatten Plan – 3 June 1947

After Cabinet Mission the things moved fast rather dramatic events unraveled. On 16 August 1946 Muslim League created trouble by declaring it as Direct Action Day. Due to it communal problems were created in different parts of the country.

An interim government was formed in India on 2 September 1946. It had representatives of Indian National Congress as well as Muslim League. Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru was Vice President of the Executive Council in interim government and in that capacity he headed the government as the Prime Minister. Muslim League was not in the mood to co-operate with the Constituent Assembly.

Muslim League and its leader Barrister Jinah wanted to have a separate nation for the Muslims. The Indian National Congress resisted demand but Muslim League was not ready to compromise on the issue of a separate Pakistan for Muslims.

Clement Atlee, the then Prime Minister of England made an announcement on 20 February 1947 that British government intends to hand over the political power in India to Indians latest by the month of June 1948.

On the above background Lord Mountbatten arrived in India as the Governor General of India. The topmost agenda of Lord Mountbatten was to accelerate the speed of transfer of power to Indians.

Things became pretty clear that Muslim League would not give up its demand for separate Pakistan.

Due to the stand taken by Muslim League it became clear that partition of India would be unavoidable.

On 3 June 1947 Lord Mountbatten declared the modalities of transfer of power.

The salient features of Mountbatten Plan were as following:

Punjab and Bengal would be partitioned

Provinces with the majority of the Hindus would have to accept the existing Constituent Assembly which they had already done

Provinces with Muslim majority such as Baluchistan, Bengal, Punjab, Sindh and North West Frontier Province would be given liberty to join the Constituent Assembly of India or Pakistan

Indian National Congress accepted the Mountbatten Plan and as expected Muslim dominated areas like Sindh, East Bengal, West Punjab and Baluchistan joined Pakistan. Under the leadership of Sir Cyril Radcliffe Commissions were formed in order to decide the boundary between India and Pakistan.

The Indian Independence Act 1947

India ultimately got most coveted independence from British rule as per the provisions of the Indian Independence Act 1947. A Bill titled the Indian Independence Bill was tabled in British Parliament on 4 July 1947. This Bill was passed on 18 July 1947 and came to be known as the Indian Independence Act 1947.

Important provisions of the Indian Independence Act 1947 were as following:

The independent Dominions of India and Pakistan to be created

The date for independence was fixed as 15 August 1947

The King of Great Britain henceforth could not use the power to veto the laws related to India

The British Monarch no more could act as paramount power in respect with Indian States

The treaties signed between the Indian States and British Crown would cease to exist after 15 August 1947

As far as the relationship and arrangements between Government of India and Indian States were concerned they should be discussed and decided with the Dominions of Pakistan and India

The office of Secretary of State for India would cease to exist

The Dominions of India and Pakistan would be at liberty to leave the British Commonwealth of Nations

Tryst with Destiny

Thus, the long cherished dream of Indians to get complete freedom from British rule came true at the mid night of 15 August 1947. Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru gave his famous speech at this hour titled as ‘Tryst with Destiny’ before the Constituent Assembly of India. Excerpts from this speech are as following:

‘‘Long years ago we made a tryst with destiny, and now the time comes when we shall redeem our pledge, not wholly or in full measure, but very substantially. At the stroke of the midnight hour, when the world sleeps, India will awake to life and freedom…….”

Only regret was that freedom came with the scar and incurable wound of partition.

Economic Conditions in 18th Century India

 Economic Conditions in 18^th Century India

The process of British Conquest of India began from Bengal. The Battle of Plassey was fought in the year 1757. The belligerents were the forces of Siraj-u-Daula, the then Nawab of Bengal and the British army under the control of Robert Clive.

The Battle of Plassey decided the political fate of Bengal in particular and India in general. After this battle Bengal went under the control of British East India Company’s rule and subsequently the Company captured many more areas in different parts of India.

The British introduced many new economic policies and changes in India throughout their rule. The British economic policies resulted into economic exploitation of India

As far as the economic conditions in 18^th Century India were concerned Indian economy was mostly self-sufficient. The salient feature of Indian Village economy was that majority of the goods and services needed by the people were available within village. There used to be various artisans who used to produce different goods required by the villagers. For example there were people who used to make cloth, oil, furniture, pots, iron goods, jewellery, grow flowers and vegetables, catch fish, make footwear, etc. The farmers used to produce the food stuffs needed by the villagers. In this way the village economy was not only self-sufficient but the cottage industry was highly developed.

The villagers used to pay the land revenue to government machinery. Various parts India were ruled by different kings or dynasties. Even though there were political upheavals and change in dynasties the economic and social fabric of the country was not disturbed generally.

India was known for its textile during those times. Cotton, silk and satin fabrics and clothes made from it were having huge demand even in the West. Important centers of cotton goods were Ahmedabad, Masulipatnam and Dhaka. Ahmedabad is an important city in Gujarat. Masulipatnam is located on the eastern coast of India in present day Andhra Pradesh. Dhaka is a capital of Bangladesh. In earlier times Bangladesh was part of India. During Mughal period it was part of Bengal province. Actually, at the time of independence of India from British rule on 15^th August 1947 present day Bangladesh decided to join Pakistan and became East Pakistan. In 1971 Bangladesh Liberation War was fought in which India played decisive role. India helped East Pakistan to win its most coveted freedom from the clutches of West Pakistan and emerge as an independent and sovereign country called as Bangladesh.

Cities and places like Agra, Lahore and Gujarat, etc. were famous for the making of silk. Silk cloths were and still popular, especially among the well to do people.

Historically Kashmir is known for its woolen products. Kashmir is a cold region and it seen that people in cool and mountainous areas are involved in sheep herding and rearing. They consume the meat of sheep and drink its milk. And they use the wool of the sheep to make products like blankets, cloths, etc. Apart from Kashmir other places like Agra and Lahore were known for their carpets as well.

Yet another feature of the Indian economy before the arrival of the British was that metallurgy was highly developed in India. Blacksmiths and Goldsmiths used to work on the metals like iron and gold respectively. Blacksmiths used to make instruments like axes, iron plough, sickles, etc. for the use of villagers and farmers. Goldsmiths used to make gold ornaments and jewellery.

There used to be rich moneylenders who used to lend money to traders and common people. There were some moneylenders from whom even the royal families used to borrow money. For example Jagat Seth was an important banker to Mughal princes and royal families of Bengal. Shantidas Jhaveri was yet another banker from Ahmedabad who used to lend money to Mughals during 16^th and 17^th centuries.

The arrival of the British rule in India from 17^th century onwards witnessed lots of economic changes in our country. Even the beginning of modern industrialisation in India had its own impact on Indian economy. It would not be an exaggeration to say that British policy resulted into degeneration and destruction of Indian cottage industry.

Unification of Italy

 

Unification of Italy

Till the last quarter of 19^th century Italy was a divided country by and large. It was divided into many kingdoms such as Sicily, Tuscany, Venetia, Parma, Lombardy and Piedmont and Sardinia. These kingdoms ruled by different rulers. The people living in all these kingdoms were Italians. They spoke Italian language and shared same culture, history, heritage. There food habits were also the same.

Austria, a powerful country from continental Europe was mainly responsible for the

division and disintegration of Italy. Metternich, the then chancellor of Austria used to say that in Italy, provinces are against province, towns against towns, families against families and men against men.

In 19th century, slowly and steadily, the Italians started developing the sense of unity and nationalism. They realised people living in different kingdoms of Italy share common history, language, culture, etc. Hence these provinces should be united and a united Italy must be created. The Italians who wanted and at- tempted for unification of Italy were grouped into three = 1. The Republicans, 2. The Federalists, 3. The Royal Sardinian Party.

 

 

The Republicans

Giuseppe Mazzini was considered as the main person responsible for promoting the Republican group for achieving the goal of Unification of Italy. He was born in Genoa in

1805. He was legal expert and a great thinker. He inspired and encouraged the Italian youth in order to unite Italy. He affirmed an organization called as the 'young Italy' in order to spread the sense of nationalism and unity and ultimately fulfil the dream of unification of Italy. The young Italy became popular among the students and many other people. The banner of this organization had words like ‘unity’ & ‘independence on one side and liberty, equality and humanity on other side. Mazzini, through young Italy, tried to promote the sense of unity and liberty.

 

The Federalists

The group believed that a federation of Italy should be established and leader of Italian federation should be Pope. The Pope was the religious leader of Roman Catholic Christians. A priest from Piedmont named Vincent Gioberti mainly promoted this idea in his book titled ‘The moral and civil Privacy of Italians’ published in 1843. This idea was seemed to be impossible when liberal Pope namely Pious IX exceeded in 1846.

 

The Royal Sardinian Party

The kingdom of Piedmont & Sardinia took the leadership of actually unifying the Italy. Charles Albert, the king of Piedmont practically became the leader of war of unification of Italy. The Pope and the Duke of Tuscany were ready to join the struggle for unification of Italy under the leadership of Piedmont. Piedmont and Charles Albert had understood that in or- der to achieve the goal of unification. It was needed to defeat Austria. In 1849, his son Victor Emmanuel II became the ruler of Piedmont.

Count Camillo di Cavour, the prime minister of Victor Emmanuel II played a crucial role in the Unification of Italy. He had served in Sardinian army. He was influenced by the liberal, political, ideas of Britain/England. Hence, he wanted to establish constitutional government in unified Italy. In 1848, King Charles Albert established constitutional parliament in Piedmont and Count became a member of Parliament - minister of agriculture and commerce and later on became prime minister in 1852 under Victor Emmanuel II.

Cavour as prime minister of Piedmont under Victor Emmanuel II, introduced various reforms and strengthened the democracy of Piedmont. He also introduced military reforms and strengthened the fortress and also the constructed new ones. He also improved the agriculture and overall economy of Italy. He improved the infrastructure in Italy, especially roads and railway network.

During the Crimean war, Cavour supported Britain and France against Russia. He did so because he wanted to ensure the support of great powers like Britain and France in the eventuality of war against Austria in unification of Italy.

 

War with Austria

Cavour ensured the support of Napoleon III against Austria and created such circumstances which made Austria to declare war on Piedmont of 19th April 1859. On 8th July 1859 by the treaty of Villa franca, Lombardy became the part of kingdoms of Piedmont. In August 1859, the northern kingdoms of Modena, Tuscany and Romagna decided to accept leadership of Piedmont and merge their kingdoms in Piedmont. In this way, most of parts of northern Italy were united under the leadership of Piedmont and Sardinia in 1859. As far as southern Italy, consisting the Sicily and Naples, were concerned, Giuseppe Garibaldi played a crucial role.

He was born in 1807. When he was young, he had joined the Young Italy. He had revolted at Genoa in 1833 out of his nationalistic feelings. Hence, he had to run away in order to save his life and he went to South America in 1834 In, South America also, he participated in Guerrilla war’s. He came back to Italy in 1848 & participated in a revolutionary activities.

Aimed at unification of southern & northern Italy He was forced to run away from Italy again and he went to New York He was involved in small time business in New York and earned wealth & with that money the brought an Island of Capera near Italy. He organized military force called as Red shirts. And he entered Sicily in 1860 and conquered Naples and with permission of people at Maples it was declared as part of Piedmont & Victor Emmanuel II came to Maples. After annexing Naples to Piedmont, Garibaldi went back to Island of Capera.

Now, the task of uniting Venetia and Rome had remained, which was achieved after the Astro Russian 1866 and Franco-Prussian war of 1870 respectively. In these wars Prussia defeated Austria and France. In the month of July 1871 to victor Emmanuel Ⅱ Eternal made his entry in city of New York Rome. Thus, the journey of Unification of Italy was completed fully by 1872 when Rome became the of capital of Unified Italy in 1872.