Pakistan: The troubled Neighbour

 

 

Pakistan

The troubled Neighbour

Pakistan is the western neighbour of India . India got independence on 15 August 1947. The independence of India came with a heavy price. This price was the partition of the country. Before independence Pakistan was the part of India.

With the establishment of Indian National Congress (INC) in 1885 the educated Indians started making political demands to British rulers in more organised way. Slowly by the beginning of 20^th century Indian National Congress emerged as the major all India level political organisation in India. It was secular in nature. It means the members of Indian National Congress belonged to different religious and social background. It included Hindus, Muslims, Christians, Sikhs and persons belonging to different castes.

In 1906 All India Muslim League was formed in Dhaka, capital of today’s Bangladesh. It was the turning point in Indian political scenario. The members of All Indian Muslim League nurtured the wrong notion that Indian National Congress was the political organisation dominated by Hindus and hence would promote their interests only. Around 1913 Barrister Muhammad Ali Jinnah became the leader of All India Muslim League. Barrister Jinnah slowly and steadily put forward agenda of separate nation for Muslims. It ultimately led to the demand of partition of India and creation of Pakistan for Muslims.

Even though efforts were made to avoid partition, those efforts proved to be futile. At last as per Mountbatten Plan the partition of India was finalized and two separate countries of India and Pakistan came into existence. India celebrates independence day on 15 August while Pakistan prefers to call 14 August as its independence day.

Integration of Princely States was the major challenge before the government of independent India immediately after independence. It was successfully met with under the able leadership of Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, the first Home Minister of independent India. But, three Princely States viz. Jammu and Kashmir, Junagadh and Hyderabad gave a tough time. These three princely states were integrated with India . But, a case of Jammu and Kashmir needs a special reference here. Hari Singh, the ruler of Jammu and Kashmir  couldn’t make decision in time about integration. The tribes from North Western Frontier region of Pakistan supported by Pakistani government started attacking Jammu and Kashmir. These tribes helped  by Pakistan army came up to Baramulla. At last, Hari Singh pleaded for Indian help and integrated Jammu and Kashmir with India. Indian army pushed back Pakistani army and tribes to major extent. This issue was taken to the United Nations Organisation (UNO). In 1949 cease fire was declared and territory to the east of Line of Control (LoC) is the part of India and the territory to the west of LoC is dubbed as Azad Kashmir by Pakistan which is a blatant lie, actually it is Pak occupied Kashmir (PoK) illegally taken over by Pakistan. This Kashmir War immediately launched after independence was the first major headache created by Pakistan for India which would be followed by many more troubles till date.

During Cold War period Pakistan proved to be an ally of Western Block led by the United States of America. Later on, Pakistan developed friendly relations with Communist China better known as People’s Republic of China. This was a deliberate move on the part of Pakistan as relations between China and India were taking downward turn as China had ran over lots of Indian territory in Jammu and Kashmir, especially adjacent to Ladakh. 

In 1962 China invaded India and illegally occupied Indian territory. During this conflict Pakistan supported China.

Pakistan not only created trouble and occupied territory in Jammu and Kashmir but afterwards it struck claim on Rann of Kutch as well. Around April 1965 Pakistani army entered the Rann of Kutch. But, Indian army gave befitting reply and defeated Pakistani army. At last as much as ninety of the Rann of Kutch remained with India and three hundred square miles of the territory in Rann of Kutch went to Pakistan.

Pakistan again created trouble by invading India on 5 August 1965. But, Indian military forces were much stronger than Pakistan army. Indian forces fought with great courage, valour and love for their nation. The Indo-Pak war of 1965 formally came to an end with the signing of Tashkent Agreement of 1966. Tashkent is the capital of Uzbekistan, a central Asian country. In 1991 many provinces of erstwhile Soviet Union seceded away from it and became independent countries. One of them was Uzbekistan.  Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri and Ayub Khan signed the Tashkent Agreement on behalf of India and Pakistan respectively.

In 1971 there was yet another war between India and Pakistan. In 1970 Shaikh Mujibur Rahman’s Awami League Party won majority in Pakistan’s Assembly but Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, the leader of Pakistan People’s Party (PPP) was not ready to accept Shaikh Mujibur Rahman as the leader of Pakistan. Awami League was having its base in East Pakistan and West Pakistan was the stronghold PPP. Yahya Khan, the then military ruler of Pakistan instead of allowing Shaikh Mujibur Rahman to form the government chose to arrest him and suppress his voice. The arrest of Shaikh Mujibur Rahman triggered the crisis. The East Pakistanis protested against the arrest of Shaikh Mujibur Rahman. Hence, Yahya Khan used military force in order to suppress the voice of East Pakistanis. Many East Pakistanis were killed and tortured. As a result of it millions East Pakistanis fled to India. It created an unprecedented refugee problem for India. Indian government warned Pakistan to control the crisis. Pakistan did not stop its army from committing atrocities in East Pakistan, rather threatened India with war. This is how the Indo-Pak War of 1971 began. Mrs. Indira Gandhi was the Prime Minister of India at that point of time. Indian armed forces gave fitting reply to Pakistani military and India won this war. Due to timely help of India not only the atrocities and suppression in East Pakistan came to an end but they got freedom from oppressive Pakistani regime. Thus, East Pakistan became independent and came to be called as Bangladesh from this time onwards.

After Indo-Pak War of 1971 Shimla Accord was signed between India and Pakistan. It accepted that the issues between India and Pakistan should be dealt with bilaterally. But, Pakistan conveniently forgot it and raised and still tries to raise Kashmir issue at an international level.

In 1977 General Zia-ul-Haq overthrew the government of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto and took over power in Pakistan. Zia-ul-Haq systematically supported the terrorists and separatists from Punjab and Kashmir. During his reign as well India was sincerely trying to establish good relations with Pakistan and solve the problems peacefully.

Mrs. Indira Gandhi was assassinated in 1984. Rajiv Gandhi, V.P. Singh, P. V. Narsimha Rao, H. D. Devegowda and I. K. Gujral ruled India as Prime Ministers in a row after the assasination of Mrs. Indira Gandhi’s in 1984 to 1999.  All off them tried to have amicable relations with Pakistan. It would not be an exaggeration if we say that even though India always wanted to have friendly relations but Pakistan often created troubles for India in one or the other way.

In 1999 Atal Bihari Vajpayee became the Prime Minister of India. The ruling coalition was called as National Democratic Alliance (NDA). During Atal Bihari Vajpayee’s tenure India became the full-fledged nuclear power. In May 1999 Pakistan army entered Kargil sector and provoked war with India. Indian armed forces once again showed their strength over their Pakistani counterparts. Ultimately by July 1999 India defeated Pakistani army and established control over military posts in Kargil.

Before Kargil War Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee had gone to Lahore by Bus in order to attend a Summit over there. It was a great gesture on the part of India.

In 2002 General Pervez Musharraf, the then military ruler of Pakistan visited India.

In 2004 Lok Sabha elections United Progressive Alliance (UPA) came to power India and Dr. Manmohan Singh, an economist who had taken education from world famous Oxford and Cambridge Universities of United Kingdom (UK) became Prime Minister. Earlier Prime Minister P. V. Narsimha Rao had appointed Dr. Manmohan Singh as Finance Minister after coming to power in 1991. In the capacity of Finance Minister Dr. Manmohan Singh had played vital role in designing and implementing the New Economic Policy based on this principles of Liberalisation, Privatisation and Globalisation. During the tenure of Prime Minister Dr. Manmohan Singh as well India tried to have cordial relations with Pakistan.

In 2014 Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) got majority in Lok Sabha elections and NDA once again came to power and Narendra Modi became Prime Minister. During the Modi era also India always has made efforts to maintain peace with Pakistan.

Peaceful and cordial Indo-Pak relations will definitely prove to be useful for both India and Pakistan. Indian establishment has always wanted healthy relationship with Pakistan and Pakistan is needed to respond positively to these efforts of India.

 

 

 

India and Neighbours: Need to improve relations

 

India and Neighbours

 Need to improve relations

Till the beginning of 21^st century general perception of the Indians was that the security and military threat for India would come from India’s western neighbour, Pakistan. But, in the present scenario one has to say that instead of Pakistan, China is throwing major challenge for India in this regard. No doubt, China has invaded India in 1962 and totally killed the slogan of ‘Hindi Chini Bhai Bhai’. The things started improving at least on certain extent since the times of Deng Xioping. His successors Jiang Zemin and Hu Jintao also more or less followed the policy initiated by Deng. Since 2013 when Xi Jinping took over as the Chinese President things are changing drastically. He is following aggressive foreign policy not only in respect with India but also other neighbours such as Vietnam and Taiwan and Western Powers like United States of America and select European countries. The relations between China and Canada are also deteriorating very fast. China is creating artificial islands in South China Sea. It is not only a major security threat to the countries located in that area but also may lead to environmental problems. It would  definitely endanger marine life in South China Sea in the years to come.

For any country it is quite crucial to maintain and promote cordial relations with neighbouring countries. It is necessary for promoting one’s own economic and overall development.  When a country enjoys peaceful relations with its neighbours then it can cut down on military spending and could use that money and resources for developmental purposes. If, a country does not have healthy equation with surrounding countries then always there is a looming danger of either invasion or military disturbances from them. This hypothesis is hundred percent correct in respect with Pakistan. Since, the creation of Pakistan in 1947 it has not left a single moment for creating trouble for India. India was forced to fight three major wars by Pakistan in 1965, 1971 and 1999. In 1965 the Prime Minister of India was Lal Bahadur Shastri, when 1971 Indo-Pak war was fought Mrs. Indira Gandhi was the Prime Minister of India and in 1999 when Kargil war erupted Atal Bihari Vajpayee was the Prime Minister of India. Apart from these three full-fledged wars Pakistan has imposed continuous proxy war on India by exporting terrorism. India has always tried and is still  trying its level best to not to disturb Pakistan. But  our western neighbour is not giving up any chance to create troubles for India, especially by carrying out terrorist activities on Indian soil. In order to deal with Pakistan it is needed to put tremendous pressure of international community and put economic sanctions on it. If, done so then only it would stop to bother India. In order to do it India needs to work overtime and convince the international community and agencies like UNO and alliances like European Union, of course USA also should help India in this regard because the relations between India and America are steadily improving during the Narendra Modi era.

India’s immediate neighbours are Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Nepal and Bhutan. As far as these countries are concerned they don’t pose direct military threat to us, at least for the time being. But, we face other issues vis-à-vis these countries. For instance, in respect with Bangladesh we have the problem of lots of Bangladeshi migrants coming to India. Sri Lanka since last few years is going closer to China and whenever there is instability or some disturbance in this island country many Sri Lankan refugees arrive in India. Nepal is also moving closer to China rapidly and building strategic relationship with Dragon. Definitely, it is alarming situation for us. Nowadays Nepal is talking about border disputes and we have some differences about water resources (rivers) with Nepal. In order to navigate these problems India needs to devise a long term policy to deal with its neighbours and bring them back in Indian fold. One has to convince these countries about the benefits they would reap by having healthy and harmonious relationship with India, especially the economic advantages. By promoting economic cooperation, investing in developmental projects in these countries and giving economic aid to them this goal could be achieved. It would definitely be one of the best ways to woo these countries and to attract them in Indian camp.

The Great Depression of 1929 : Economic Shock to the World

 

 

The Great Depression of 1929

 Economic Shock to the World

The Great Depression of 1929 is one of the worst economic problems faced by the western economies in particular and world in general. It started in 1929 and according to experts lasted up to 1939. The economy of United States of America (USA)  was severely affected by the Great Depression. It would not be an exaggeration if we say that it destroyed an era of prosperity which was existing in America in 1920s and reversed the economic development of USA.

The effects of Great Depression were quite fast and very negative. It brought severe miseries and poverty for lots of people in America. Many Americans lost their jobs and become unemployed during the Great Depression. Some economists say that there were abundant goods available in the market but the purchasing power of the people had decreased. People were desperate to sell their belongings like cars and homes but there were no buyers as most of the Americans had become penniless.

The 1920s set in unprecedented economic prosperity in United States of America. The Republican Party was successful in sending its representative in White House when Warren G. Harding won the Presidential elections in 1920. Harding was a Republican from the state of Ohio. He remained President from 1921 to 1923. During his tenure there were quite a few scandals including Teapot Dome scandal. But, it is said that he was sympathetic towards the condition of minorities and women. He was also open for accepting new technologies.

The slogan of Warren Harding during Presidential Election Campaign was ‘Return to normalcy’  and he believed in the philosophy of ‘Less government in business and more business in government’. In spite of scandals prosperity returned to America after First World War during Harding years. He died in 1923 in the Californian city of San Francisco and his Vice President Calvin Coolidge became the President as per the provisions in the United States Constitution.

Calvin  Coolidge was born in Plymouth in the state of Vermont located on eastern coast of United States. He went on to become the Governor of the state of Massachusetts. During his tenure Americans witnessed spectacular prosperity. His popularity was quite high in 1924, hence, he got elected as the President of the United States in that year. His statements like ‘The man who builds a factory builds a temple, that the man who works there worships there and to each is due, not scorn and blame, but reverence and praise’ inspired the Americans further who worked hard and accelerated the economic property. The hallmark features of Coolidge Presidency were tax cuts, strong economic growth, increase in wages, decreasing unemployment and inflation.  Thus, Americans had jobs and more money to buy things including car.

In 1928 Calvin Coolidge chose not to run for the Presidency, hence, his Secretary of Commerce Herbert Clark Hoover was nominated as the Republican nominee during Presidential Elections. Herbert Hoover was born in Iowa but spent his constructive years in Oregon. He was engineer by training.

Before becoming the US President Hoover had contributed in various capacities. He was in London when Germany declared war on France in 1914. Hence, he had to carry out the great responsibility of taking out the tourists from Europe which was under the cloud of war. President Woodrow Wilson gave a responsibility of ensuring the steady availability of food to the Americans and their allies during the First World War by appointing him as the In-charge of Food Administration. Hoover proved to be an excellent administrator in this capacity and took care that the food needs of both American people and overseas friends of United States of America were taken care properly. One of the fantastic examples of extending help to enemies as well on humanitarian ground is that Hoover saw to it that the Soviet Russia gets help in 1921 even though Russians and Americans shared opposite ideologies. At that point of time he had taken the stand that irrespective of political differences one should not allow twenty million people to starve.

Hoover served as Secretary of Commerce for both Warren Harding and Calvin Coolidge and thus played crucial role in bringing prosperity in the lives of Americans. But, it is irony of history that when he himself became the President the whole edifice of prosperity and economic development came down crushing when Stock Market started collapsing in 1929.

The Great Depression of 1929 as mentioned above resulted into increase in unemployment, starving, steep decline in Gross Domestic Product (GDP), many banks lost their deposits, lots of factories were closed down and mines were abandoned. Americans faced extreme difficulties during the Great Depression. It is said that even people were searching for food in garbage beans. People were ready to sell their houses and cars for raising money but there were no buyers. It not only affected the American economy but the Europe and other parts of the world also experienced the effects of this great economic shock directly or indirectly.

Ultimately, in the Presidential Elections of 1932 Herbert Hoover was defeated badly by Democratic Party nominee Franklin D. Roosevelt.

Franklin Roosevelt brought the economy of USA back on track with the help of his New Deal Policy.

 

 

Reza Shah Pahlavi: The Man who modernised Iran single-handedly

 

Reza Shah Pahlavi

The Man who modernised Iran single-handedly

We read in the history books that Mustafa Kemal Pasha reformed and modernised Turkey. One can say that in the similar manner Reza Shah Pahlavi of Iran transformed his country by attempting to bring positive changes.

Reza Shah Pahalvi’s original name was Reza Khan. He was born on 15 March 1878 in the city of Alasht located in the province of Mazanderan near Caspian Sea. His father’s name was Major Abbas Ali Khan. He went to Tehran along with his mother after the death of his father. He got military training under the supervision of Russian trainers. Iran was having presence and influence of two European powers during those days. One was Russia and the other one was England. Personality of Reza Khan was striking and very much suitable for military service. He was strong and tall man with sharp intelligence. He had developed utter disliking for his Russian superiors and Russia as such.

He wanted to bring changes in Iran, then known as Persia. He and many others like him had started thinking that bringing an end to the rule of Qajar dynasty in Iran would usher into a new beginning in the life of their nation. Qajar monarchs were ruling Iran from 1794 onwards. They had proved to be a failure as far as promoting modernisation and new-age development of Iran was concerned.

Reza Shah had experience of working with Russian military commanders in the beginning. He did not have high opinions about them. Rather, he disliked them. The precarious political conditions in Iran in the opening decades of 20^th century had disturbed this patriotic army officer. He wanted to bring the political change in his motherland. He got able partner in this endeavour in the form of Ziauddin Tabatabi. British played an important role in bringing these two Iranian nationalists and in turn overthrowing the government of Ahmad Shah, the then king of Iran. Reza Shah and Ziauddin Tabatabi with the help of army forced Ahmad Shah to step down as the king of Iran on February 21, 1921.

In the beginning Reza Shah was appointed as Commander-in-Chief of armed forces and Ziauddin Tabatabi became the Prime Minister. But, later on Ziauddin Tabatabi resigned as the Prime Minister and in 1923 Reza Khan became the Prime Minister of Iran. Ultimately on December 12, 1925 Reza Khan was made the king of Iran by a constitutional amendment. From this time onwards he came to be known as Reza Shah and his dynasty was called Pahlavi.

After declaring himself as the king of Iran Reza Shah started his ambitious Reform Programme. The intent of his reforms was to develop his country and modernize it. Important reforms introduced by him were as following:

Reza Shah took firm action against the law breakers and law violators. He wanted to make peasants, traders and common people to feel safe. He established the strong central government in Iran and took swift action against bandits and marauders. By doing so, one can say that he brought law and order back on track in Iran.

One of the goals of Reza Shah was to achieve economic development of the country. He realised that an expert advise is needed in this regard, hence, he appointed an American viz. Dr. Arthur Millspaugh as economic adviser to his government. The financial condition and revenue collection system was improved and industries were promoted. Textile, cement and sugar factories were established. National Bank was formed in Iran. These efforts indeed paid rich dividends.

Due attention was paid towards improving communication and transport facilities. Wireless service was brought under the control of Iranian government. He built good roads and most importantly an ambitious Trans-Iranian railroad project was completed with indigenous funding without taking foreign aid. The Trans-Iranian railroad definitely became the engine for promoting further economic development of Iran.

Reza Shah knew very well that Iran was lacking proper judicial system and modern laws. Hence, he  introduced a new judicial system based on French model. The proper Penal Code made way for age-old Iranian laws. A special act was passed making it mandatory to register the marriages as well as divorces taking place in the country. The Waqf properties were taken over by the government and nation and national issues were given more importance over religious aspects.

Reza Shah endeavoured to give modern, liberal and most importantly secular education to Iranian students. In Tehran, the capital of Iran an University was established. Primary education was made compulsory. In order to make illiterate adults to read and write adult education programme was designed. The schools started by European and American Missionaries were allowed to give education to Iranian children. Iranian students interested in going to Europe for taking education were supported and helped by the government.

His intention was to modernise as well as westernise the Iranian society. Hence, he asked Iranian men to wear western style clothes and women to stop wearing veil. Law against polygamy was made. It was a fantastic step towards giving justice to women. He gave up lunar calendar and accepted the solar calendar. He made systematic efforts to purify Persian language from the influence of Arabic language. Western literary genres, films, music and architecture was promoted. He considered Persia, the name of his country as western sounding and changed it to Iran.

The Second World War resulted in to the downfall of the progressive regime of Reza Shah. England was controlling the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company located in Iran. But, Reza Shah started taking help from French, German, Italian and other European experts in the years to come for technological advancement of the country. During Second World War Reza decided to remain neutral not taking side of either allied or axis powers. He also refused the suggestion of British to ask German technicians to leave Iran on the allegation of being German spies operating in Iran. He refused to allow the use of Trans-Iranian railroad to allied powers like England and Russia during Second World War. These bold decisions of Reza Shah were disliked by England and Russia and they attacked Iran and ultimately he was forced to step down as the king of Iran in 1941. In his place his son Muhammad Reza Shah was appointed as the ruler of Iran. Reza Shah was sent to Mauritius and afterwards to Johannesburg. In Johannesburg this great leader and king of Iran died on July 26, 1944.

Reza Shah undoubtedly remains one of the greatest rulers in the history of modern Iran. He single-handedly brought vivid changes in Iran and certainly modernised and westernised his country.

Are you having ‘Rizz’ in you?

 

Are you having ‘Rizz’ in you?

The title of this article might have sounded interesting for readers. Especially, the word ‘Rizz’ would definitely create curiosity among us. Yes, you are right this is a new word which became very famous during the year 2023. The meaning of ‘Rizz’ is ability to attract a person romantically. In other words being ‘Rizz’ means being attractive or having charm. This word got sort of recognition when it was used by Hollywood actor Tom Holland. Before that it was used quite often by YouTuber and Streamer Kai Cenat.

Tom Holland is famous for his role in Hollywood film titled ‘Spider-Man: Far from Home’ released in 2019. In this film produced by Columbia Pictures and Marvel Studio Tom Holland has played the character of Spiderman, the Superhero. He was born on June 1, 1996 in a town called as Kingston upon Thames. This town is located in southwest London, the capital of United Kingdom.

As far as the story or you can call history of the word ‘Rizz’ is concerned it was used for the first time in the year 2022. But, it became a rage and widely popular word when it was used by Tom Holland in his one of the interviews as mentioned above. He had said in the concerned interview that “I have no rizz whatsoever. I have limited rizz”.

According to experts the word ‘Rizz’ has originated from the word ‘Charisma’. It is said that Oxford University Press (OUP) which publishes the Oxford English Dictionary, appoints a team of fifteen experts in order make selection of ‘Word of the Year.’ They go through the words submitted to them by the readers but mainly they scan or search the maximum use of word on electronic or online platforms. They start their search with several thousand words and shortlist three words finally. After that at last one word is chosen as the’ Word of the Year’. As far as ‘Rizz’ is concerned it was having other competitors like ‘Prompt’, ‘Situationship’ and ‘Swifty’. It is quite interesting to know what the younger generation means by these words. The meaning of word ‘Prompt’ for today’s generation is an instruction given to an artificial intelligence programme, ‘Situationship’ means an informal romantic or sexual relationship and ‘Swifty’ means an avid fan of Taylor Swift. Taylor Alison Swift is a very popular singer from United States of America. Even  though she sings in different genres, but especially her pop songs are very popular among her fans. She is also a song writer. She was born on 13 December 1989 in West Reading borough in the state of Pennsylvania.

While talking about English language one has to accept a fact that it is a  progressive and flexible language. Lexicographers of English language study the words from other languages as well and make it a point to accept it in English language. For example Indian words like ‘Guru’, ‘Jungle’, ‘Mantra’, etc. have made their way into English language. Until and unless such flexibility is accepted the vocabulary in the language cannot increase and the language cannot progress. Hence, while retaining the original words in the language and maintaining the essence of the language it is necessary to adopt words from other languages as well then only it can remain relevant with changing times. At the same time  the readers and writers should keep on coining new words in order to maker her further rich. This lesson can be taken from English language. Due to this kind of flexible and progressive approach followed by the English language experts, linguists, lexicographers and most importantly the readers and the one who speak this language it is prospering with every passing year. It should not be an exaggeration if we say that Hindi language is quite flexible when it comes to accepting words from other languages.

Apart from Oxford English Dictionary, Cambridge and Merriam-Webster Dictionaries also choose their respective ‘Words of the Year’.

Selecting the ‘Word of the Year’ concept itself is fascinating. Such healthy ideas , concepts and practices are needed to be accepted so that  not only language but society also keep on evolving. Hence, we can conclude by saying are you ‘rizz up?’

Mustafa Kemal Pasha: The Ataturk of Turkey

 Mustafa Kemal Pasha

(The Ataturk of Turkey)

    Mustafa Kemal Pasha remains the most loved leader in modern history of Turkey. He is called as the Ataturk meaning the Father of the Nation. He is immensely loved by Turks because he established the Republic in Turkey after First World in early 1920s by overthrowing monarchy. Not only so, he modernized Turkey by introducing reforms.

    He was born in the year 1881 in Salonika in Greece. The name of his father was Ali Riza and that of mother was Zubeyde Hanim. His father was having military background. Hence, Mustafa’s father wanted his son to be a military person. One of the important aspects of Ali Riza’s thinking was that he believed in secular education. Naturally, he sent Mustafa to secular school instead of religious one. It can be said that secular education made deep impact on the mind of young Mustafa. That is why he promoted secular and scientific education after becoming ruler of Turkey and modernised his country by heavily coming down on religious fundamentalists.

    Mustafa Kemal Pasha was attracted towards military service. Hence, after clearing the entrance examination he joined the Secondary Military School in order to pursue a career in armed forces. He was given the title of Kemal by his Mathematics teacher. The meaning of the word Kemal is the Perfect One. Mustafa later on studied in War College and General Staff College.

    Mustafa Kemal Pasha was a nationalist and patriot at core. He loved his country very much and wanted to transform it into modern one. At that point of time Turkey was ruled by Sultans who also used to be the Caliphs of the Muslim world. In order to bring positive changes in Turkey Mustafa Kemal Pasha had played an important role in the establishment of Society for Fatherland and Freedom. He was utterly unhappy with the type of training given to Turkish military. He wanted that Turkish military forces should be given proper modern training like European countries. He had translated the German Military manuals in Turkish language. It showed his intention of modernising Turkish army.

    Kemal Pasha formed the nationalist government at Ankara around 1920. This government of Mustafa Kemal Pasha was rival to that of the one run by Sultan Muhammad VI from Istanbul. At last he was able to force Sultan Muhammad VI to go into exile in the month of November in 1922. Mustafa Kemal Pasha formed the Republic in Turkey on 29 October 1923 formally.

    It would not be an exaggeration to say that Mustafa Kemal Pasha wanted to transform his country totally and bring it to the level of advanced European countries. After coming to power he embarked on a fantastic journey of introducing manifold reforms in Turkey.

Let us discuss the reforms of Kemal Pasha in the forthcoming paragraphs.

    Kemal Pasha realised that there is a need to revamp the administrative set up of the country. It is always difficult for the rulers to provide good governance in the absence of effective administrative system with various layers. This was exactly understood by Mustafa Kemal Pasha. He divided his country into vilayets i.e. provinces, kazas i.e. districts and nahiyas i.e. boroughs. The number of provinces was sixty two and that of districts was four hundred and thirty. This system helped government to reach upto the last person in society. It is evident that this system was having three layers of administration. It could be observed that he not only divided and properly decentralised the administration at province, district and borough level but saw to it that government servants serve the people properly and efficiently.

    He knew very well that until and unless Turkey’s military power is enhanced it would not command the respect from great powers and refrain her enemies to attack her. He trained the armed forces rigorously and disciplined them. Modern weapons were procured. Due attention was given towards modernisation of air force as it was fast emerging as an important wing of armed forces since the First World War. Even artillery was given due attention. For modernisation of armed forces or military funds were sanctioned.

    Turkey was and even today is predominantly Muslim country as the people believing in Islam form majority. Mustafa Kemal Pasha wanted to secularise the country. In 1928 National Assembly declared that Islam was one of the religions in the country paving the way for secularisation of Turkey. He knew quite well that the efforts of modernisation and westernisation of Turkey would not go down well in a religiously conservative country. The conservative Muslim Clergies would have definitely opposed his reforms and some did so as well, that is why Mustafa Kemal Pasha banned the sacred tombs as places of worship. He also made efforts to weaken the position of Clergies. The properties belonging to monasteries were taken over by the state in order to utilise it for providing public facilities. The restrictions were imposed on religious orders.

    Mustafa Kemal Pasha knew that in newly emerging modernised and westernised Turkey there would be a need of modern laws and legal system. Hence, decision was made to do away with the age-old religious laws and legal system. In it’s place modern judicial system was introduced and laws were framed on European models. The laws of European countries like Switzerland, France, Italy, Germany, etc. were studied and  modern commercial, criminal and civil laws were introduced in Turkey.

    Reforms in the field of education were considered quite important by Mustafa Kemal Pasha for creating sensitive knowledge society which would receive his reform programme in positive manner. He converted the religious schools called as madrasas into state run secular schools where modern subjects were taught. He instructed the experts to find the way for writing Turkish language in Roman alphabets instead of Arabic script. Institutions for providing legal, administrative and agricultural education were established. Training institutes were started in order to train teachers so that they could teach students properly and appropriately. Efforts were made to see to it that hundred percent children in the age groups of six to sixteen attend the newly modernised secular schools. He also provided scholarships to students who wished to study abroad, especially Europe.

    Both men and women play vital role in the progress made by a country and society. Mustafa Kemal Pasha had understood it very well. Hence, he wanted to ensure the participation of women in the path of modernisaion, westernisation and development of Turkey. In Turkish society women were subjected to various restrictions and exploitation which had resulted into their lower social status. They were also denied the right to proper education. This scenario was reversed by him. Doors of education were equally opened for women. Women were allowed to pursue legal education, become teachers, doctors, nurses, engineers, etc. They were given voting rights from local to national elections. They could now contest the elections for National Assembly and become the Members of Parliament. Polygamy and purdah system was discouraged. Women could start business if they wanted to. Men and women could talk openly and feel free in each other’s company in public places thanks to encouragement given by Mustafa Kemal Pasha.

    Mustafa Kemal Pasha wanted to bring cultural changes in Turkey which he believed would help him to modernise it. Accordingly, western style of dresses were promoted among men and women. He asked people to greet each other in European style such as shaking hands. Even the western music was promoted. He also asked Turkish men to wear European style of caps and hats. Weekly public holiday was shifted from Friday to Sunday. In place of Lunar calendar Solar calendar on European model was introduced in Turkey.

    It was quite clear to Mustafa Kemal Pasha that the reform programme for modernisation and westernisation would not be received well with by the people until and unless economic development was achieved. Proper economic planning and it’s execution was done. Industrialisation was promoted. For motivating industrialists and manufacturers tax concessions and even tax holidays were declared. Farmers were urged to adopt modern techniques of agriculture. They were asked to go for crops like figs, opium, cotton, tobacco, etc. Farmers were encouraged for cattle breeding and sheep rearing which would help them to earn extra income. Various minerals like manganese, mercury, coal, copper, etc. were mined. He gave emphasis on developing infrastructure in order to accelerate the economic development. It included laying down railroads and building highways. He even set up banks in Turkey. Emphasis was given on generating employment opportunities. Appropriate measures were taken to earn income from oil resources of Turkey. These efforts of Mustafa Kemal Pasha paid rich dividends and put Turkey on the path of economic development. If we look at today’s Turkey and its well organised and efficient economy, certainly we need to give credit of it to the initiatives undertaken by Mustafa Kemal Pasha who is aptly called as Ataturk by Turks. Meaning of word Ataturk is Father of Nation.

    While modernising and westernising Turkey, Kemal Pasha gave due attention towards foreign policy as well. He successfully renegotiated with Allied Powers and convinced them to replace Treaty of Severes with that of Treaty of Lausanne. Newly signed Treaty of Lausanne was beneficial to Turkey than that of Treaty of Severes  which was imposed on Turkey by Allies after First World War. With the rise of extremist fascist powers in Italy and Germany Mustafa Kemal Pasha improved relations with Allied Powers like England and France which in turn allowed Turkey to militarise the Straits of Bosporus and Dardanelles and allowed her to control these Straits completely during war time. It was a great diplomatic victory for Turkey. Mustafa Kemal Pasha tried to have peaceful relations with its eastern neighbours like Iran, Iraq and Afghanistan.

    Measured by all means Mustafa Kemal Pasha remains the greatest leader of Turkey. He totally transformed a backward country into modern, western and developed one. This great leader of Turkey died in 1938. His countrymen were highly indebted to him and were in great grief after the death of their beloved leader. It can be apt to say that he made use of his power for promoting Republic in Turkey.

 

 

 

Geographical Discoveries

 

Geographical Discoveries

In late medieval period Europeans were involved in a very unique and new kind of adventure known as Geographical discoveries. In 1453 the Ottoman Turks conquered the city of Constantinople which was the capital of Byzantine Empire. It affected the European trade with the eastern part of the world, mainly India and China through land route. As far as trade through sea was concerned it was monopolised by Italy. Through Mediterranean Sea route the goods were brought to Italy and later on they were distributed in other parts of Europe. Hence, many Italian cities like Venice had emerged as important trade centers in Europe. With the fall of Constantinople in the hands of Ottoman Turks, the Europeans were strongly resolved to find new sea routes which would take them to the East.

The Europeans were not only interested in exploring new sea routes but also acquiring land and attempt adventures. Apart from these factors there were many reasons responsible for the Geographical discoveries. These causes are as following:

The Europeans were attracted by the wealth of eastern countries like India and China. They had come to know about this wealth when they had gone to fight crusades in holy land of Jerusalem. The accounts of earlier European adventures like Marco Polo also gave them information about the richness of the East. This very wealth of Eastern world caught the imagination of the Europeans and they decided to establish direct contact with the East by way of discovering new sea routes.

One can say that after Renaissance Europe witnessed development in trade and commerce. People at large developed taste for worldly affairs and hence wanted to enjoy different goods and products. The goods from eastern world were quite famous in the West.

Certain, goods and commodities from East were in tremendous demand in Europe. These goods included spices like clove, pepper, ginger, nutmegs, cinnamon, clothes like silk, cotton, satin, other commodities such as camphor, sandal wood, indigo, glass, metal works, iron, copper, woolen cloth, precious stones like pearls, diamonds, rubies and precious metals like gold and silver. In order to seek these goods directly the Geographical discoveries were promoted. Countries like Portugal and Spain were on the forefront and later on other European countries also joined this bandwagon.

The demand for Eastern goods had increased on great extent but the fall of Constantinople in the hands of Turks created hurdles in the trade between West and East. The capture of Constantinople by Turks definitely affected the trade carried out through land route as Turks imposed restrictions on this trade and also started collecting heavy toll. Even they asked for higher prices for the Eastern goods. Hence, the Europeans were desperate to find out alternate routes which led to the discovery of sea routes and new lands earlier unknown to them such as America.

After Renaissance Europeans gained knowledge of various areas and subjects. It included science and geography. Instruments like mariner’s compass, the quadrant, the astrolabe and telescope made the sea journey of sailors much easier and less risky. The Europeans around this time started making accurate and scientific maps and charts of the world which included the location of the different seas. Equipped with this knowledge and instruments Europeans set on the adventures of Geographical Discoveries.

The European kings and Christian missionaries were interested in spreading Christianity in overseas lands. Hence, both ruling families and missionaries wanted to see to it that geographical discoveries are promoted. The Christian missionaries had such a great zeal for spreading Christianity that most of the times they used to travel along-with traders to the overseas territories.

Europeans gained scientific knowledge about earth and other celestial bodies like planets, stars, moon, etc. thanks to development of science during Renaissance. Earlier there was misconception that Earth was flat but Renaissance scientists proved beyond doubt that Earth is spherical in shape. Hence, European explorers and sailors were quite confident that by traveling towards West through sea i.e. Atlantic Ocean they could ultimately reach the East. Columbus did the same thing and ended discovering New World i.e. America.

As mentioned earlier, Italians were mainly controlling the trade with East. In other words, there was Italian monopoly on trade between West and East. Other Europeans now wanted to break this monopoly of Italy and establish direct trade links with East and earn profits.

The most important factor which resulted in discovery of new sea routes and lands was the patronage and encouragement given to explorers by royal families of countries like Portugal and Spain. Later on the rulers of countries such as England, France, Netherlands, etc. also followed their example. For planning and carrying out sea expeditions lots of money, vessels and money power was needed which was provided by these royal families.

Explorers from various European countries contributed to the Geographical Discoveries. Some of these explorers were- Vasco da Gama (Portugal), Christopher Columbus (originally from Italy but his expedition was sponsored by the royal family of Spain), Ferdinand Magellan (Portugal), John Cabot (originally Italian but voyage to the West towards America was sponsored by the royal family of England), Pedro Alvares Cabral (Portugal), Amerigo Vespucci (Italy), Balboa (Spain), Giovanni da Verrazano (he was Italian, his voyage towards West was sponsored by the rulers of France), Richard Chancellor (Britain), etc.

The Geographical Discoveries proved to be quite beneficial to Europeans in general and European ruling families in particular. It produced the following results or effects:

The countries which were on the forefront of the geographical explorations and discoveries ended up establishing overseas colonial empires. For instance, the Portuguese who came to India established their colonies on western coast of India which included Goa. Portuguese also colonised Brazil in South America. Most of the parts of South America and Central America were colonised by Spain. Eastern part of today’s USA was colonised by British. Canada was colonised by France and Britain. The British established control on various other parts of the world as well such as Africa, Asia, Australia, New Zealand, etc. In due course countries like Netherlands, Belgium and Germany also established their overseas colonies.

The Geographical Discoveries prompted the economic development of European countries. The European countries started getting lots goods, raw material and precious metals from their overseas colonies which helped them economically.

One of the negative aspects of Geographical Discoveries was that it led to Slave Trade. Portuguese and Spanish people captured the sturdy and strongly built black people of Africa and sold them to the plantation owners in New World or America as Slaves. These black Slaves were forced to work on huge plantations and treated very badly by their white masters. Even, the native Americans known as Red Indians were also exploited by the white settlers by way of confiscating their lands.

Europe witnessed rise and expansion in its trade and commerce, thanks to the Geographical Discoveries. Now, European traders started going to almost all important parts of the world like Asia, Africa and South America. Variety of goods were brought from these lands which included sugar, rum, cotton, spices, ivory, tea, coffee, spices, etc. The trade between Europe and other continents increased enormously.

The Europeans gained knowledge about new territories, seas and people due to Geographical Discoveries. European adventurers and explorers found out the earlier unknown lands and also sea routes. For instance, Christopher Columbus discovered the New World which was unknown to Europeans earlier. The New World subsequently came to be known as America. Like Christopher Columbus each and every explorer added to the existing geographical and world knowledge of the Europeans. They came to about the variety of flora and fauna and different kind of people from different parts of the world. Europeans now firmly started believing in scientific truth that Earth was round and not flat as it was believed earlier.

One of the unique features of Geographical Discoveries was that the countries like Portugal, Spain, England, etc. which had promoted and supported Geographical Discoveries witnessed the rise of powerful monarchies which in turn gave political stability to these countries. The royal families and kings of these countries were on the forefront for promoting the Geographical Discoveries. Hence, these countries established overseas colonies which became the source of money and power to the monarchs of these countries.

One more negative aspect of the Geographical Discoveries apart from Slavery was that it resulted into the destruction of indigenous Red Indian cultures in South America. The Spaniards who had colonised most of the part of South America played the negative role of destroying the erstwhile Red Indian civilsations like Inca, Maya and Aztec.

The above discussion clearly shows that Geographical Discoveries were an important development in the history of the world. It not only resulted in to the discovery of new lands, seas, sea routes, flora and fauna and people but most importantly brought the world more closer.

 

American Revolution of 1775

 

 American Revolution of 1775

        1775 is an important year in the history of United States of America. In this year the War of American independence started. The American War of Independence against Britain is also called as the American Revolution.

      With the discovery of America by Christopher Columbus many Europeans started migrating to this land. America was called as the New World in the beginning. Later on it was named as America after an Italian explorer viz. Amerigo Vespucci.

           The southern part of America was colonised mainly by the Portuguese and Spanish. As far as North America was concerned it was mainly colonised by the French and British. The French were present in what is called as Canada today and the British migrant population established thirteen colonies on today’s eastern coast of United States of America. The names of these thirteen colonies were- Massachusetts, Connecticut, New Hampshire, New York, Rhode Island, New Jersey, Maryland, Delaware, Pennsylvania, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina and Georgia.

        The war broke out between above mentioned thirteen colonies and their mother country Britain in 1775. This American War of Independence or American Revolution resulted in the independence of American colonies from British rule.

        There were various factors or causes responsible for the American Revolution. These causes can be summed up as following:

        The thirteen colonies of America over the years had developed a sense of self-reliant and enterprise. Each of these thirteen colonies had an Assembly. The Assemblies used to make laws of local nature. At the same time there used to be a British Appointed Governor. Over the years the thirteen colonies developed self confidence and thought that they could handle their political matters and administration on their own. This kind of spirit of self-reliance and confidence was one of the factors which prompted the Americans to bring to an end the rule of their mother country that is England.

        The Americans also did not like the approach of the then British king George III towards them. He literally used to consider these colonies as his personal property. This kind of attitude was resented by the Americans. Important laws meant for colonies were made by the British Parliament. It was not liked by the Americans. Because they did not have representation in the British Parliament located in London. There was a huge distance between England and America which were separated by Atlantic Ocean, hence, the contacts between the common Americans and their mother country England were quite less. It automatically resulted into declining love and affection towards England on the part of Americans.

        Apart from above mentioned reasons, the economic factors were essentially responsible for the Revolution. The thirteen colonies of America were tremendously exploited by England. Hence, the colonies resolved to revolt and gain the independence. English Parliament enacted many laws which put lots of economic restrictions on thirteen colonies and it in turn resulted into their exploitation. Some of these British made laws were- Navigation Laws, Sugar Act, Stamp Act, Quartering Act and Townshend Acts. All these Acts exploited thirteen colonies of America economically. Rather, these Acts were passed by in order to exploit the colonies and promote the interests of British traders and manufacturers. Ultimately the Americans revolted against British rule in order to bring to an end the economic exploitation. Americans started saying that if the British wanted to make laws related to Americans then they should be given representation in British Parliament. In other words, they were asking for the right to elect American representatives in British Parliament. Britain was not interested in allowing the Americans to elect their Members of Parliament in Westminster Palace. Americans didn’t like the restrictions imposed on manufacturing of different goods, restrictions on selling their certain goods in European markets, using the British ships for export and import purposes at higher rates and compulsory use of stamp papers on legal documents. They were demanding for stoppage of this type of British policy. When their demands and aspirations went unheard they had only option and that was to revolt which they did in 1775.

        We have seen that today’s Canada was under French control in the beginning. Due to the French presence in North, the Americans were not taking any decisive step against England. They were under the fear of looming danger of French invasion in case they had overthrown the British rule. They thought that if British rule was brought to an end by them then French would invade them and colonies them. But, this danger was taken care when England defeated France in Seven Year’s War fought between 1756 to 1763 and French were forced to leave Canada. After Seven Year’s War, Americans realized that if they could overthrow the British rule then there would be no danger of French invasion.

        Americans were greatly inspired by the writings and thoughts of philosophers and thinkers like John Locke and Thomas Pain. John Locke was British thinker and Thomas Pain was American philosopher. These intellectuals had said that if the rulers are not doing their job properly and ruling the country appropriately and neglected the welfare and rights of the ruled then people have every right to overthrow such governments. Apart from these two thinker’s others American intellectuals like John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin and Alexander Hamilton also motivated Americans for Revolution through their writings as well as speeches.

        British East India Company used to supply tea to Americans. But, Americans in order to teach a lesson to British started smuggling tea brought by the Dutch merchants. Due to it the East India Company started making losses, hence the British Parliament passed the Tea Act so that East India Company’s tea would become cheaper. But, now Americans were not interested in buying the British tea. They resented the Tea Act passed by the British Parliament. The Americans decided to teach a lesson to East India Company and British government. Hence, on 16 December 1773 some Americans disguised themselves as Red Indians and entered the ships of East India Company docked in Boston harbour containing the tea and destroyed it by throwing it into sea. This incident is called as the Boston Tea Party.

        The Boston Tea Party angered the British and strong action was taken against the colony of Massachusetts. The Boston port was closed down and it would be reopened for operations only after the people of Boston would pay for the cost of destroyed tea. The functioning of the Assembly of Massachusetts witnessed massive restrictions. The colony of Massachusetts was put under the direct control of Britain. In order to declare solidarity and support to Massachusetts the representatives of American colonies met in the city of Philadelphia in Pennsylvania in 1774. This meeting is called as the First Continental Congress. In this Congress the representatives of American colonies drafted the world famous Declaration of Rights. It was also decided to not to have trade relations with England until it reversed the punitive actions taken against the Massachusetts and Boston. One of the features of First Continental Congress was that colony of Georgia did not send her representative to attend it. In First Continental Congress it was decided to convene the Second Continental Congress in the month of May 1775 if England did not respond positively to the demands made in First Continental Congress.

        But, before the Second Continental Congress could be convened the fighting started between Americans and British in the month of April 1775. Nevertheless, the Second Continental Congress met in May 1775 in Philadelphia as decided earlier. This time Georgia also deputed her representative. Second Continental Congress chose George Washington of Virginia as the Commander-in-chief of American forces and firmly decided to fight for their independence.

        By 1782 it became clear that British would lose the fight. The peace talks began soon and the American Revolution or American War of Independence finally came to an end by the Treaty of Paris signed in 1783.

        The American Revolution resulted in to the overthrow of British rule from thirteen colonies of America. These thirteen colonies won the freedom and emerged as new sovereign country on the map of the world. This country came to be known as the United States of America. It was an independent nation lying between Canada in North, Atlantic Ocean to the East, Mississippi river in the West and Florida in the South. Later on in nineteenth century Americans expanded their boundaries and pushed it up to California in West and Mexico in South.

        During the course of American Revolution thousands of American soldiers died while fighting and also in prisons after they were captured by British. It is said that more than twenty-five thousand American soldiers died either while fighting, in prison or due to exposure to diseases.

        Three countries were involved in American Revolution. These countries were United States of America (erstwhile thirteen colonies), England and France. Americans were given help by France during their struggle against England. France has sent her soldiers to America in order to help Americans in their fight against England. All these countries faced tremendous economic and financial troubles due to this war as they had to spend a lot on their war efforts. Newly emerged nation of United States of America introduced additional taxes and was able to meet the economic troubles. England could come over her economic woes by improving trade relations with United States of America. But, France was the ultimate sufferer. The economic strain caused by the American Revolution was so heavy for her that French treasury was literally empty and it paved the way for French Revolution in 1789.

        American Revolution caused French Revolution by putting economic strain on France and also by inspiring them. French soldiers who had been to America in order to help Americans in their fight against England were very much inspired and impressed by the way the Americans had fought with great valour. In 1789 French had revolted against the rule of king Louis XVI in order to establish the regime based on liberty, equality and fraternity these principles were somewhere influenced by the American principles of Democracy and Rights of human beings.

        Unsympathetic attitude of George III towards thirteen colonies was one of the crucial factors responsible for the American Revolution. Due to the loss of American colonies the political changes took place in England. The days of autocratic monarchy were over in England and it made the way for constitutional monarchy. Not only so, but the Whigs also known as Liberals emerged as a major political opponent group to Tories or Conservatives in England.

        England learnt a major lesson after losing American colonies. It started treating her other colonies like Canada, South Africa, Australia and New Zealand in proper way. These were called as white colonies of America because many White people had settled down in these colonies. England realised that one or the other day she is definitely going to lose the colonies.

        The American Revolution was the victory for the principles of democracy and liberty. The United States of America established a Democratic government after independence and valued the liberty of its citizens. It also inspired many other people in the world for these ideals.

French Revolution of 1789

French Revolution of 1789

(One of the landmarks events in World History)

        France, a country located in Western Europe witnessed one of the epoch making events in human history. This event was the Revolution of 1789. The revolution was directed against the inefficient, ineffective, exploitative and arbitrary rule of French monarchy. The king of France at the time of Revolution when it started in 1789 was Louis XVI. He belonged to the Bourbon dynasty. The French society was divided into three classes i.e. estates and if we say that it was based on principle of inequality it would not be an exaggeration. The Revolution of 1789 resulted in tremendous effects which not only brought sweeping changes in France but inspired the people from different countries in the world directly or indirectly. The French Revolution started on 4 July 1789 with the Fall of Bastille and came to an end in 1799 with the establishment of Consulate under the leadership of Napoleon. These ten years not only witnessed the political upheaval in France but also a lots of bloodshed.

        Before the 1789 Revolution as mentioned above there was monarchy in France. The king of France in 1789 was Louis XVI. Before him France was ruled by Louis XIV and Louis XV. Both of these two predecessors of Louis XVI were more interested in fighting wars and leading luxurious life at the cost of state treasury. Unfortunately, Louis XVI did not learn from the mistakes of Louis XIV and XV and mostly repeated their mistakes. All these kings had neglected the public welfare on great extent. Not only so during their rule the first two estates consisting Clergies and Nobility were exempted from taxation and they in turn were allowed to collect taxes from third estate, especially the peasants. The French Revolution of 1789 ended this inequality and resulted into the loss of privileges enjoyed by the first two estates. Feudalism became the past and autocratic rule of monarchy was brought to an end.

        The French Revolutionaries have given one of the unique documents known as Declaration of Rights of Man to the world. It said that liberty, property, security and resistance to oppression are some of the basic and natural rights of human beings. It is very important document as it inspired the oppressed people in other parts of the world in order to rise against those regimes which had denied these rights to them. The Constitution makers while drafting the Constitution of their respective countries were impressed by these principles and incorporated it in their respective Constitutions. It has also influenced the international organizations like the United Nations.

        The French Revolution of 1789 resulted in ending the privileges enjoyed by the Clergies of the Church. The Revolutionary government of France declared that, henceforth the Church officials will be subordinate to the state. The property of the Church was taken over by the new regime. The Clergies were made to take the vow that they would remain loyal to the State. In this way one can say that the Pope lost control on the National Church of France and it came under the direct control of the French government.

        As mentioned earlier, the French Revolution of 1789 was not just one of the important events in the history of France but a landmark event in the history of humankind. We are saying so because French Revolution inspired the oppressed and exploited people in other parts of the world to revolt against their autocratic rulers who had denied them the liberty, equality and fraternity. Not only so, but the ideals of French Revolution of 1789 motivated the freedom struggles in nineteenth and twentieth centuries in different continents of the world. It also promoted the ideas of democracy, nationalism and republicanism.

        The French Revolution of 1789 resulted into lots of killings or human loss. The king of France, Louis XVI and his queen Marie Antoinette lost their lives. During Reign of Terror (1793-94) many people who were opposed to Revolution were killed by using guillotine machine at the behest of Maximilien Robespierre and his supporters. At last on 27 July 1794 Robespierre and his followers were also guillotined or killed which ultimately paved the way for an end of Reign of Terror.

        One of the most important effects of the French Revolution of 1789 was that it resulted into bringing Napoleon Bonaparte to the forefront who became the ruler in the form of First Consul in 1799. He brought enormous changes in France and brought good days in the life of common people in France that is why he is aptly called as the Child of French Revolution.

 

 

 

 

The Bombay Plan

 The Bombay Plan

(Memorandum Outlining a Plan of Economic Development for India)

 

            The Economic History of 20 the century India would not be completed without referring to an important document, rather a Vision Document called 'A Plan of Economic Development for India' which is also popularly known as 'The Bombay Plan'. It was published in 1944-45 and divided in to two parts. The contributors or writers of The Bombay Plan were the stalwarts from the world of business from different parts of India including Bombay city. They were already the estlished and reputed business leaders. The who's who from Indian business world viz. Sir Purshotamdas Thakurdas, J.R.D. Tata, G. D. Birla, Sir Ardeshir Dalal, Sir Shri Ram, Kasturbhai Lalbhai, A. D. Shroff and John Mathai were the people who penned this document in order to help government to design its economic policies in post second world war period. The writers of the Bombay Plan were assuming that after the Second World War some sort of national government would be constituted in India with a total freedom to make decisions in economic sphere of the country. Some of these businessmen were having the title of 'Sir' i.e. they were knighted by the British Monarch which shows that they were respected by the British government as well. Their contribution in the business related matters were aptly recognized by the government of the time.

        Sir Purshotamdas Thakurdas was a cotton trader and was highly respected in the government circles.

        J. R. D. Tata can be considered as the doyen of Indian business world from 20 th century. He was born in Paris on 29 July 1904. He was half Parsi and half French. His father, Ratanji Dadabhoy Tata was Parsi and first cousin of Jamshedji Tata. As most of us know, Jamshedji Tata was a premier entrepreneur from India who had started the Tata Iron and Steel Company in 1807 at Sakchi, a place in erstwhile Bihar and now it falls in Jharkhand. Around 1919, this place was renamed as Jamshedpur by Lord Chelmsford, the then Governor General of India in the honour of Jamshedji Tata. The name of J.R.D. Tara's mother was Suzanne Briere. He is considered as the first pilot of India and credited with expanding the Tata conglomerate by starting new companies such as Tata Consultancy Services, Tata Motors, Tata Salt, Voltas, other ventures. He was given the 'Legion of Honour', the highest Award of France. This Award was constituted long back by the legendary French Emperor and Warrior, Napoleon Bonaparte. Government of India also honoured him with the 'Bharat Ratna', the highest Civilian Award in India. It was JRD Tata who had recommended the name of Ratan Tata in 1991 to succeed him as Chairman of Tata Sons. and lead the Tata Group.

            Ghanshyam Das Birla a.k.a. G. D. Birla was born on 10 April 1894 in Pilani Rajasthan. Since pre- independence time he was known as the 'Nationalist Businessman'. He often used to meet Mahatma Gandhi and they used to write letters to each other. In 1918 he started the jute mill in Calcutta and a cotton mill in Bombay, which he larer on shifted to Calcutta. He also started paper mills and made a foray into automibe industry by establishing the Hindustan Motors. The famous car models produced by Hindustan Motors were Contessa and Ambassador. Contessa was also dubbed as the Indian Mercedes by some people. He had started the United Commercial Bank on 6 January 1943. This bank is known as UCO Bank at present. It was one of the banks nationalised by Mrs. Indira Gandhi in 1969. G. D. Birla along with Purshotamdas Thakurdas had established the Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry (FICCI) in 1927. In 1964, he started one of the top most Institutes of Higher Technical Education in India at Pilani, in Rajasthan, it was named as Birla Institute of Technology and Sciences (BITS). Some of the prominent alumni of BITS, Pilani are Nanaji Deshmukh (Social Reformer), Prof. S. P. Kothari (Academecian), Baba Kalyani (Businessman/Industrialist- Bharat Forge-Kalyani Group), Sunil Duggal (Dabur India), Prithviraj Chouhan (Former Chief Minister of Maharashtra).

            Sir Ardeshir Dalal was known as the technocrat and administrator. In British India he had served on important adimistrative posts of government. In 1928 he became the first Indian to be appointed as the Municipal Commissioner of Bombay City. He was ICS officer. He joined the Tata Group in 1931 as Director of Tata Iron and Steel Company. He was with Tata Group from 1931 to 1941 and again from 1945 to 1949. Lord Wavell (Viceroy and Governor General of India between October 1943 to February 1947) appointed Dalal as the Member of Viceroy's Executive Council in 1944 to look after the Planning and Development.

            Sir Shri Ram or Lala Shri Ram was born on 27 April 1884 in Delhi. He was associated with the Delhi Cloth Mills (DCM). He was the main spirit behind the establishment of important educational institutions in Delhi viz. Shri Ram College of Commerce ( Some of the notable alumni of this College are Late Arun Jaitley- the former Finance Minister of India, Rakyesh Omprakash- noted film maker of ,'Rang De Basanti' and 'Bhaag Milkha Bhaag' fame and actor Gulshan Grover) Lady Shri Ram College for Women (Notable alumane of this College are Aung Saan Suu Ki- the famous political leader of Myanmar, Archana Puran Singh-actress, Nidhi Razdan-journalist, Mrudula Mukherjee-historian) and Shri Ram Institute for Industrial Research among others.

            Kasturbhai Lalbhai was born on 19 December 1894 in Ahmedabad. It is said that he was the descendant of Shantidas Jhaveri, the royal jeweller of Mughal Emperor, Akbar. His father, Lalbhai had started the Saraspur Cotton Mill in 1896. He became the President of Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry in 1934. Ahmedabad Textile Industry's Research Association (ATIRA) was formed by Kasturbhai Lalbhai along-with Vikram Sarbhai and Shanti Swaroop Bhatnagar in 1947. He was the Director of Reserve Bank of India (RBI) from 1937 to 1949. He had donated the land for the establishment of Indian Institute of Management (IIM) at Ahmedabad.

            A. D. Shroff was born on 4 June 1899. He was Industrialist, banker and economist. He is regarded as one of the guiding spirit behind the banking and insurance business in India. He attended the Bretton Woods Conference on post war monetary and financial systems in 1944. He was the founder Director of the Investment Corporation of India and Chairman of Bank of India and New India Assurance Company Limited.

            John Mathai was born on 10 January 1886 in Calicut now known as Kozhikode in Kerala. He was the Professor of Economics in Madras University. He also served as the Railway Minister and Finance Minister under Pandit Nehru. He was the first Chairman of State Bank of India. He was also the Vice Chancellor of University of Bombay from 1955 to 1957. Verghese Kurien, the man credited for bringing White Revolution (Milk Revolution) in India was his nephew. Mathai had also served as the Director of Tata Sons Ltd.

            The brief profile of the authors and signatories to the Bombay Plan indicates it's significance. These were the people who had created the niche for themselves in administration as well as business affairs of India during British rule. Their achievements had made the British government to take cognizance of it and accordingly not only to honour them but also exploit their expertise in designing and implementing government decisions, wherever needed.

            The Bombay Plan(ners) were contemplating the idea that there would be National Planning Committee and the Supreme Economic Council for designing and executing the economic plans respectively. And these two would function under the control or supervision of central government. The most important objective of the Bombay Plan was to double the per capital income of India within fifteen years from the implementation of the Plan. The Planners emphasised that the prime attention to be given for producing power and capital goods in the beginning while not neglecting the production of consumption goods for consumers. While pondering over the financial aspect of implementation of the Plan, the authors said that the real capital of the country is resources in material and man-power. Once these are mobilised and properly canalised in to economic activity most important thing is done. The Bombay Plan had envisaged the reasonable standard of living with the emphasis on food, clothing, shelter, medical relief and education. The Plan believed that the people should be able to get balanced diet with 2,800 calories per day. The Plan stated that on the basis of the population of 1941 India would require 11,670 million yards of cloth for fulfilling the clothing needs of the country. Regarding housing space it stated the need of 100 square feet per person and the estimates for number of persons per house in 1941 were 5.1. Hence, it recommend the minimum 500 square feet as the average area of house where five persons can live comfortably.

            For achieving the Minimum Health Standards, it recommend the steps such as proper sanitation and water supply, dispensary for every village, general hospitals and maternity clinics in towns and special institutes for treating the tuberculosis, cancer, leprosy, venereal diseases, etc. The Plan also discussed the nitty-gritties of above mentioned measures in detail.

            The Planners had recommended that all the persons above the ten years of age should be able to read and write. It had suggested the school for each village with minimum basic facilities. It also gave emphasis on adult literacy. The Plan believed that for ensuring the minimum standard of living the per capital income of Rs. 74 was essential at pre-war (Second World War) prices.

            The Plan aimed at threefold increase in the national dividend or income within fifteen years from the implementation of it.

            The Plan classified the industries in to two categories i.e. Basic Industries and Consumption Goods Industries. The former included power, mining and metallurgy, engineering, chemicals, armaments, transport and cement companies and that of latter textiles, glass, leather goods, paper, tobacco and oil Industries mainly.

            As far as agriculture was concerned it proposed increasing agricultural production by 130 per cent with the suggestion of co-operative farming for increasing the size of agricultural holdings. It felt the need of liquidation of the rural or agricultural indebtedness. The Plan recommended the provision of Rs. 200 crores capital outlay and Rs. 10 crores as recurring amount towards conservation of soil and other measures for improving the quality of land. Apart from these aspects, it also advised extending the area of agricultural cultivation and increasing the production per acre. It talked about the Model Farms for educating the cultivators.

            The Bombay Plan touched most of the important areas of economy and infrastructure such as transport and communication, railways, roads, shipping, education, sources of finance, needs of consumers, distribution of the national income, full employment i.e. suitable sources and opportunities of earning to every adult, urban and rural wages, agricultural prices, free social services which included the free primary and middle school and adult education and medical treatment both in urban and rural areas, due emphasis on utility services such as electricity, gas, transport, provision of National Relief Fund, social security measures, taxation of income, regional development, etc.

           The Bombay Planners also recognized the role of State and its need based intervention in the economic affairs of the country. In addition to State functions such as managing currency and public finance, collection of statistical information/data, safeguarding the interests of economically weaker sections, it expected the State to deal with matters of ownership, control and management of economic enterprises. It suggested that enterprises owned by the State, public utilities, basic industries, industries using scarce natural resources to be controlled by the State. Thus, the Bombay Plan suggested the model of mixed economy in a way by giving space and defining the role of both the private Enterprise and the State in economy and industiral sector.

            The authors of Bombay Plan were of the opinion that the Bombay Plan should be split in to three five year plans and to be implemented accordingly in total fifteen years.

           The Bombay Plan was published in two parts. The second part of the Plan was not signed by Sir Ardeshir Dalal as by the time second part was published in1944, he was appointed as the Member of Viceroy's Executive Council as the Member for Planning and Development.

            It is advisable for the students of economics, commerce and management in particular and all other students in general to study and analyse the Bombay Plan as it is very important Document which tried to give important piece of advice to government on economic affairs. In 2018, the Rupa Publications India Pvt. Ltd. has published a fantastic book on Bombay Plan. The title of the book is 'The Bombay Plan: Blueprint for Economic Resurgence'. It has been edited by Sanjaya Baru who was Media Advisor to Dr. Manmohan Singh, the former Prime Minister of India and Lord Meghnad Desai, the UK based economist and politician. It's a must read book.

Asst. Prof. Subhash G. Shinde

Vice Principal and HoD, History

VPM's Joshi-Bedekar College, Thane